Effects of Cognitive Training on Executive Functions and Decision-Making in Adolescent Female Volleyball Players

Executive functions, including inhibitory control, working memory, cognitive flexibility, and attentional control, play an important role in sports requiring rapid perception and decision-making, such as volleyball. Although previous studies have shown that cognitive training can improve executive functions, evidence regarding the transfer of these improvements to sport-specific performance remains inconsistent.

The purpose of this randomized controlled study is to investigate the effects of a short-term tablet-based cognitive training program on executive functions and volleyball-specific on-court decision-making performance in adolescent female volleyball players.

Fifty licensed female volleyball players aged 12 to 14 years participated in the study. Participants were randomly allocated to an intervention group or a control group. The intervention group completed a four-week cognitive training program consisting of three supervised sessions per week (20-30 minutes per session) in addition to routine volleyball training. The control group continued routine volleyball training without additional cognitive training.

Primary assessments included executive function measures obtained using the Stroop Test, Trail Making Test-A (TMT-A), Go/No-Go Test, and 2-Back Test. Volleyball-specific decision-making performance was evaluated using a video-based temporal occlusion paradigm, with decision-making accuracy and response time recorded before and after the intervention.

The study aims to determine whether short-term cognitive training improves executive function performance (near transfer) and whether these cognitive improvements translate into enhanced sport-specific decision-making performance (far transfer) in adolescent female volleyball players.

• Tablet-Based Cognitive Training (Behavioral): A structured four-week tablet-based cognitive training program was administered three times per week for approximately 20-30 minutes per session. The program included computerized exercises targeting inhibitory control, working memory, cognitive flexibility, attention, and processing speed using validated cognitive training applications.
• Routine Volleyball Training (Other): Participants continued their routine volleyball training according to their regular training schedule.

Primary outcomes

• Change in Stroop Interference Time [Baseline and Week 4]: Change from baseline to Week 4 in Stroop interference time, calculated as the difference between the mean reaction time under incongruent and neutral conditions, measured in milliseconds (ms) using the computerized Stroop Color and Word Test.
• Change in Trail Making Test-A Completion Time [Baseline and Week 4]: Change from baseline to Week 4 in the time required to complete the Trail Making Test-A, measured in seconds (s).
• Change in Go/No-Go Reaction Time [Baseline and Week 4]: Change from baseline to Week 4 in mean reaction time during the computerized Go/No-Go Test, measured in milliseconds (ms) during correct Go responses.
• Change in 2-Back Accuracy [Baseline and Week 4]: Change from baseline to Week 4 in working memory accuracy during the computerized 2-Back Test, measured as percentage of correct responses (%).
• Change in 2-Back Reaction Time [Baseline and Week 4]: Change from baseline to Week 4 in mean reaction time during correct responses in the computerized 2-Back Test, measured in milliseconds (ms).

Secondary outcomes

• Change in On-Court Decision-Making Accuracy [Baseline and Week 4]: Change from baseline to Week 4 in volleyball-specific decision-making accuracy assessed using a video-based temporal occlusion test, measured as the number of correct decisions (0-25).
• Change in On-Court Decision-Making Response Time [Baseline and Week 4]: Change from baseline to Week 4 in volleyball-specific decision-making response time assessed using a video-based temporal occlusion test, measured in milliseconds (ms).

Sex: Female, ages: 12 Years to 14 Years, accepts healthy volunteers

Inclusion Criteria:

* Female volleyball players aged 12 to 14 years.
* Licensed volleyball players with at least 1 year of playing experience.
* Regular participation in volleyball training during the previous 6 months.
* Written informed consent obtained from both participants and their parents/legal guardians.

Exclusion Criteria:

* History of neurological or psychiatric disorders.
* Visual or hearing impairment that could affect cognitive testing.
* Serious musculoskeletal injury within the previous 6 months.
* Previous participation in a structured cognitive training program.
* Injury during the study period or incomplete participation in the assessment procedures.